The Colosseum

Imagine if the Wright Brothers first plane looked more like a modern 747. In the context of modern sports stadiums, the Colosseum is a model of similar form and function. It’s hard to believe that it was the first of it’s kind. Before construction of the massive stone structure, gladiatorial events and exotic menageries were held in temporary wooden venues. The Emperor Vespasian opened a new chapter in Roman engineering achievement as he was trying to make a massive political statement.

Vespasian didn’t care much for politics. He earned his fame with victories in the war to reclaim Judea for the Empire. State functions bored him and the ramblings of the Senate only complicated his battlefield strategies. When a civil war broke out in Rome, in the wake of the Nero‘s tyrannical reign, Vespasian returned from the front lines, and with the authority of his armies established himself as the new ruler. His son Titus was left to finish the job in Jerusalem.

To solidify his position as Emperor, Vespasian needed to gain the popular support of the people of Rome. One of his first acts was to return to the public much of the space acquired by Nero for his self-aggrandizing villa, called the Domus Aurea. Legend has it that a bronze colossus in Nero’s image stood at the entrance to the private gardens and porticos. This is where Vespasian planned to locate his stone amphitheater - henceforth it became known as the Colosseum.

Construction of the massive edifice (615 ft long by 510 ft wide by 160 ft tall) would have been extremely costly, even for the Roman Empire. However, shortly after Vespasian’s ascension to ruler, Titus completed his middle-eastern campaign and arrived Rome with cartloads of treasure, possibly from the destroyed Temple of Solomon. Titus’ Arch of Triumph commemorates his return with riches, but experts disagree about the extent to which those valuables could have financed the construction of the Colosseum. In a romantically historical sense, it’s intriguing to link these major structures and events of history together in such a way. In fact, the legend continues, since it has been recorded that stone mined from the ruins of the Colosseum were used in the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.

The Colosseum was completed in 80 AD under the rule of Titus. Amazingly, it only took 10 years to construct. Upon completion about 50,000 spectators were able to witness gladiatorial contests, wild beast hunts and possibly even naval battle re-enactments. The elaborate staging was made possible by a complex under-stage structure complete with mechanical elevators, trap doors, underground tunnels and an potentially massive piping system capable of flooding and draining the lower bowl.


In many ways, the architecture of the Colosseum is still very familiar to us today. A system of ramps allowed the citizens to proceed directly to the correct concourse. Seating was assigned by social status, but at least admission was free for all those permitted to attend the events. On the concourses, vendors would sell souvenirs and food. The spectators were even known to play betting games and make wagers on the activity below. Gambling was controlled by the State and sometimes banned, depending on the ideology of the rulers.

Even the structural elements of the Colosseum are employed to this day in stadium design. We’re very familiar with the series of concentric seating rings. As in today’s construction, these seating sections were supported by evenly spaced rakers oriented perpendicular to the rows of seating. Today it might be more common to use a series of reinforced concrete or steel beams for this function, but the Romans managed just fine with masonry arches. Between the rakers, they used continuous vaulted arches, inclined to provide “stadium seating.” It appears that these arches were formed with a clay brick and then topped with a low strength concrete fill to level out the seating surface. Similar technology was still being widely employed in steel building construction well into the 20th century.

As brilliant as the engineering of the Colosseum might seem, the techniques employed were well practiced by centuries of previous Roman construction. The truly impressive feat is in the organization of the construction and the collaboration between experts. No documents explicitly state the members of the design team, but we can assume, based on the speed of construction and the success of the design, that a division of labor similar to modern project teams was in use. In the centuries following, master builders would receive the credit for masterminding architectural feats, but back in Roman times we can suspect deeper specialization leading to more incredible structures.

However, the Colosseum was lacking in one design criteria. A major earthquake in 443 AD caused damage requiring fairly substantial renovation. And in 1349 another quake caused the collapse of the outer South ring. The damage can in part be blamed on the weak alluvial soils below the amphitheater. Masonry is also a notoriously bad material in seismic activity due to its low ductility and large mass. Re-purposing the rubble from the collapse also lead to general acceptance for mining stone from the massive free-standing quarry. Long before 14th century, however, the marble facing and semi-precious metals were likely removed from the Colosseum. Many of the jagged masonry surfaces exposed today were probably faced with smooth Italian marble at the height of Empire.

Finally in 1749, the Pope declared the Colosseum a sacred site, suggesting that it was the site of early Christian martyrdom. Whether Christians were actually massacred inside the Colosseum cannot be historically verified, but the Pope’s call for preservation of the site surely prevented the final deterioration of the structure. Later Popes instituted a series of stabilization and restoration projects.


One reinforcement scheme commemorated in paintings still on display in the Vatican museum included the installation of masonry buttresses at the exposed ends of the outer ring. Since the collapse of the southern portion of the ring, the rest of the third concourse was in danger of collapse. Arches redirect vertical forces horizontally. In the complete structure, which forms an imperfect oval, the arches are all mutually supporting. In the damaged state, the slightest geotechnical activity or over-loading event could have caused a domino effect, resulting in the complete collapse of the tallest colonnade. The new buttresses redirect the horizontal thrust, via solid diagonal walls, to the ground.

The Colosseum stands today as the most visible link between the great engineering achievements of the Roman Empire and our current understanding of building principles. Somehow, it seems perfectly natural view traffic racing down the Via dei Fori Imperiali right past the ancient edifice. The team of architects, engineers and builders delivered, on their first try, a structure that would set the standard for arena design for 2000 years. To this day, few structures make a stronger statement about the strength of civilization than the Colosseum; Vespasian would have been pleased.

1000 A.D.

I recently finished reading the book "Millennium," by Tom Holland. It chronicles the history of Europe from the slow decline of the Roman Empire up through the conquering of Jerusalem by Crusaders in 1098. From start to finish, I was riveted by the complex tangle of power, faith and tradition and how it all affected the outcome of history.

The author makes the argument that a host of noblemen and religious leaders made monumental decisions believing that the thousandth year of Christ's birth (or resurrection) would usher in the end of days. In the book's forward, parallels are drawn between modern doomsday proclamations including the hype surrounding the unimpressive Millennium bug. Might our own leaders in this decade have meddled in foreign affairs believing that our medieval ancestors were just off by a multiple of two.

By mixing quotations from historic texts with archeological records, the story is told from the perspective of those who lived in these chaotic times. Many of the surviving accounts come from the priesthood, no doubt due to much better literacy rates.

We learn that the church, at the turn of the millennium, was undergoing a serious attempt to reduce simony (the taking of bribes) and liberate itself from the monarchy who cared little for the eternal souls of the common man. Led by the example of thriving monasteries, this is also when the church began cracking down on married priests. Mandatory mass on Sundays was also introduced. People who preferred to worship on their own or who became vegetarians were labeled heretics. Strangely, many hermits continued to be revered despite their heretical tendencies.

The church was ultimately unsuccessful in ushering in meaningful reforms (see the reformation). And in the effort to strengthen the Papacy, so that it did not need to rely on the might of a king or Emperor, a monster was created. To protect its southern flank from Saracen pirates, the Pope authorized a fighting force of Normans to invade Sicily. Although these mercenaries would refuse to leave their recently conquered lands, the power play was repeated in England, where the Pope authorized William the Conqueror on his famous campaign. Finally, similar actions by the Papacy eventually led to the First Crusade.

These historic events are explained in such detail that you can imagine the time and places no matter your current location.

Vaison-la-Romaine

The Pax Romana, or Peace of Rome, encompassed two remarkable centuries of western history. From 27 B.C. to about 180 A.D., Rome consolidated its power within borders that included the entire Mediterranean region and extended as far north as the British Isles. It's thought that citizens could travel from Alexandria to Paris using the same currency throughout the trip and expect to find public servants speaking the same Latin language. At the same time, Roman architects and engineers were perfecting the art of city planning and constructing monumental population centers throughout the empire.

Roman influence penetrated well into the heart of France. In a relatively short time, the Gauls of southern France adopted Roman customs and began to flock to Roman cities. Vaison-la-Romaine was one such urban center. Located in the shadow of Mt. Ventoux, it seemed an unlikely site for a large roman settlement to me. However, it is home to one of the largest Roman archeological sites in France. A complete commercial center, a hillside theater, a bath-house and several huge residences can be seen among the ruins.


Most of the buildings' facades have long since deteriorated away, but the foundation walls and a series of (perhaps) reconstructed columns allow visitors to imagine the experience of walking through a Roman city. Walking along a street in the commercial district, you can visualize the merchants peddling their wares from their appointed stalls. Entering through one portal, visitors would have been greeted by a statue of Mercury, the Roman god of commerce. Continuing on through the interior courtyard, you might have seen where the daily cost of goods was negotiated - an ancient stock market of sorts.

The other side of town was home to the wealthiest Roman citizens. Their mini-palaces sprawled over multiple city blocks and often featured private gardens and baths. The servants and family lucky enough to live with such a patron could enjoy running water and state-of-the-art plumbing. Conveniently, these wealthy and politically connected residents lived closest to the city's theater.


Over time, however, the strength of the empire ebbed, under constant pressure from foes on all borders. In the ages following the fall of the Roman Empire, villagers moved into more defensible walled cities. Vaison-la-Romaine is also home to a walled medieval village. Standing tall on the highest rock outcropping within the city is an imposing citadel. Narrow cobble-stone streets wind gradually up to the masonry fortress.

It's likely that much of the stone used to build the medieval city was mined from the ruins of the Roman structures. Excavations around the edge of a nearby church clearly show that Roman fluted column sections were used to create foundations for the church walls. The practice of recycling building materials is age old. It's clear that the medieval residents of the city has no qualms about historic preservation. However, later generations can be glad that they weren't more efficient in mining the Roman city.

View more of my photos of Vaison-la-Romaine on Flickr.

Orange Theater

The city of Orange is home to the most complete Roman theater in all of Europe. In fact, only two other Roman theaters in the world can boast of having a similarly preserved stage wall – the backdrop for any production performed on stage. The theater of Orange miraculously avoided destruction by a series of foes, including: the Christians who frequently destroyed any symbol of Roman paganism, the Visegoths rampaging through the Western Empire, and Mother Nature.

The condition of the theater today is the result of continuous renovation that began in the late 19th century. The latest addition is a modern roof over the stage. In antiquity a wooden roof would have cantilevered over the stage. Long sheets of linen would also be draped across the entire seating semi-circle. The restoration efforts attempt to recreate for theater patrons the experience shared by the Romans.

The events currently hosted by the theater differ significantly from those that would have been most popular during the golden years of the Empire. Symphonies and Operas now rule the theater, but mime would have been most prevalent in the second century A.D. Contrary to our definition of mime, some dialogue was permitted, but the shows were mostly about spectacle: elaborate costumes, “special effects,” action and slapstick comedy. The shows became increasingly outrageous until degrading into pornography. At which point, the Emperor Justinian, whose wife had been an actress, banned mime productions.

The degradation of theater morality is especially ironic, because early Roman leaders were fearful that institutionalized leisure would make the populous lazy and unruly. They partially attributed the Greek’s love of theater to the downfall of Hellenic Empire. For several centuries, Roman theater productions were only permitted to be performed on temporary stages with no seating for guests.

Eventually, the Roman Emperors realized that theater provided a means of indoctrinating conquered peoples into Roman culture and distracting them from thoughts of revolt. It’s highly symbolic that a sculpture of the Emperor looms large in a niche directly over the center of the stage. Within 100 years of the defeat of the Gauls, the residents of Orange had almost entirely accepted Roman language, culture and governance.

The Roman culture and technical achievements would have been highly attractive to many indigenous populations. That is in part why the Pax Romana lasted as long as it did. It also gives some historic perspective to the fear of native cultures in the US and elsewhere that the American Consumer culture will overwhelm local customs. It’s striking, and a bit scary, how many American brands are available in France.

McDonald’s may have kicked off the trend; now, even Starbucks is available. Supermarchés, like Meijers, are springing up outside cities. The French even had to pass a law requiring radio stations to play at least 40% French language music (the balance is typically English). And for the first time, we’ve seen obese French. Locally, this is blamed on the new availability of processed foods so common in American diets.

Once again, it’s fascinating to me how ahead of their time the Roman’s were. The technical achievement of constructing the Theater of Orange is no less impressive than today’s architectural gems. And the cultural warfare conducted through these edifices is eerily similar to America’s goal to win the hearts and minds of the people in whose countries we wage war. The old adage that history repeats itself rings true after a visit to Orange’s ancient theater.